You’ll likely pass through several classes of airspace on every flight, whether it’s your first solo or a cross-country flight to the beach. Each class of airspace is depicted with unique markings on the sectional chart and different VFR weather minimums and equipment requirements. Take our latest quiz and test your knowledge of the U.S. airspace system.
1. What are the four types of airspace used in the United States?
Correct!Wrong!
2. What is the purpose of an Alert Area?
Correct!Wrong!
3. What is the minimum ceiling and visibility for takeoff, landing, or entering the traffic pattern of an airport in Class E airspace under visual flight rules?
Correct!Wrong!
4. To operate in Class D airspace, you must:
Correct!Wrong!
5. A temporary flight restriction (TFR) may be issued for:
Correct!Wrong!
6. Pilots flying within __ NM of the Washington D.C. VOR/DME must complete an online course covering flight operations in the D.C. Special Flight Rules Area (SFRA).
Correct!Wrong!
7. When are you required to have an ADS-B out transponder when flying near Class B airspace?:
Correct!Wrong!
8. To fly in Class A airspace you must have:
Correct!Wrong!
9. To fly through a Class B VFR Corridor, you must first
The Regional Airline Association (RAA) is now accepting applications for its 2025 scholarship program.
The Regional Airline Association (RAA) is now accepting applications for its 2025 scholarship program, which offers financial support to students pursuing careers in aviation. The RAA Scholarship aims to help the next generation of aviation professionals achieve their educational and career goals while strengthening, expanding, and diversifying the aviation industry’s future workforce.
Each year, RAA awards scholarships to outstanding students enrolled in accredited aviation programs at colleges and universities across the United States to offset the financial burden of education costs. The scholarship is open to individuals pursuing careers as pilots, aircraft maintenance technicians, and other aviation-related professions vital to the regional airline industry.
Eligibility Requirements:
Must be a U.S. citizen or permanent resident
Enrolled in an accredited aviation program at a college or university
Demonstrated academic excellence and a strong interest in pursuing a career in regional aviation
How to Apply:
Students can submit their applications online by April 30, 2025. The application includes a personal statement, resume, academic transcripts, and a letter of recommendation.
Recipients will be announced later in the year and will be recognized at the 2025 RAA Leaders Conference, where they can connect with industry leaders and professionals.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/28135030/raa-scholarship.png10001250Flight Training Central Staffhttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngFlight Training Central Staff2025-03-07 08:55:152025-02-28 13:53:13Regional Airline Association Opens Application Window for 2025 Scholarship Program
The rugged design of a tailwheel airplane and its extra prop clearance opens up the opportunity to land at a wide variety of off-airport locations with soft surfaces, like sand, gravel bars, grass and even mud. A modified soft-field approach and landing technique should be used when operating from these conditions, which allows the wheels to touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed with the wings supporting the weight of the airplane as long as possible.
This week’s tip explains how to land a tailwheel airplane on non-pavement surfaces using the soft field method. To learn more about how to fly tailwheel airplanes, check out Sporty’s Tailwheel Checkout Course with Patty Wagstaff.
Aerodynamic stalls are caused by an excessive angle of attack. And while technically they can occur at any attitude, power setting, or airspeed, as a practical matter, they are likely to occur when operating at the edges of the normal operating envelope and/or while making abrupt control inputs. While it’s extremely important to understand what conditions can lead to a stall, how to recognize an impending stall, and correct recovery techniques, it’s not something to fear during your everyday flying.
Depending on design, airfoils used in general aviation, stall at angles of attack between 16 to 18 degrees. A wing will always stall at the same angle of attack; however, weight, and bank angle, power setting and load factor may change the speed or the pitch attitude at which the airplane stalls.
Stalls are not taught to make you proficient in performing stalls but are done to make you aware of and avoid an impending stall, or, properly recover in case you inadvertently stall the airplane. Practicing stalls will also help you learn the low airspeed flight characteristics of the airplane, and how to control the airplane at low airspeeds which is what you will encounter while maneuvering in the traffic pattern and approaching to land.
The test standards divide stalls into power off and power on. The power on stall simulates the takeoff and departure situations, and the power off stalls the approach and landing conditions. Whenever you perform any stall, the airplane must be at an altitude which allows the stall and recovery to be made without descending below 1,500 feet above the surface. This is an absolute minimum and stalls should be practiced higher, if at all possible. Also, the weight in the airplane must be properly distributed and balanced. This is always true, but it is especially important when practicing stalls. If weight is loaded too far forward, the airplane will stall at a higher airspeed; and if loaded too far aft, stall recovery may be difficult.
Power Off Stalls
The imminent stall recovery is made when the airplane is on the verge of, but not completely, stalled.
To begin, reduce power to idle and maintain altitude in level flight to slow the airplane to normal approach speed. As the airspeed slows into the white arc, extend the wing flaps. At the normal approach speed, lower the nose to the approach pitch attitude.
When the airplane is stabilized in the approach attitude and speed, begin to smoothly and slowly bring the nose up to an attitude which will cause a stall. This attitude should not be more than the normal climb attitude. The idea is to reach the imminent stall without having the airplane in an abnormally high pitch attitude.
The imminent stall recovery is made when the airplane is on the verge of, but not completely, stalled. This is when the first decay of control effectiveness or buffeting occurs because of the disruption of normal air flow over the flight control surfaces.
Recovery is made by lowering the nose, simultaneously applying full power while maintaining directional control with coordinated use of aileron and rudder. Because the airplane is not fully stalled, the pitch attitude only needs to be lowered to the point where minimum controllable airspeed, and thus control effectiveness, is regained. A pitch attitude slightly below level flight is usually sufficient to recover from an imminent stall.
As speed increases, slowly retract the flaps and establish a normal climb to the altitude specified by the examiner or instructor.
Imminent power-off stalls during turns should be made at 20 degrees of bank, simulating the turn from base to final. The imminent stall should be accomplished in approximately 90 degrees of turn. After establishing approach speed and flap configuration, start a 20-degree bank turn. Then, slowly and smoothly bring the nose up to the attitude which will stall the airplane.
During all turning stalls there is a tendency for the bank to increase. If the bank increases, the loss of vertical lift component tends to lower the nose. During the stall entry, use control pressures as necessary to prevent the bank angle from changing, keep the ball in the center, and keep the nose from dropping. Then, at the first sign of a stall, lower the nose, apply power, and level the wings. Right rudder pressure will be needed to offset the effect of the increase in power.
As speed increases, slowly retract the flaps and establish a normal climb to the altitude specified by the examiner or instructor.
The entry procedure for doing full stalls straight ahead with power off is the same as for the imminent stalls. For turning full stalls power off, the bank should be 20 degrees.
Full stalls require that the airplane be forced deeper into the stall, but recovery should be prompt when any of the signs of a full stall is experienced. Compared to the power on full stall, the power off full stall will provide fewer cues in that the airplane will not shake and buffet as much as in the power on stalls. Usually, the best clue is when the elevator control is full back and the nose pitches down.
The recovery procedure is the same as for all stalls. Reduce the angle of attack, add full power, and maintain directional control using coordinated rudder and aileron pressures. As you might expect, recovery from the full stall will require a lower pitch attitude to avoid the secondary stall and the altitude loss will be greater. As speed increases, retract the flaps- be sure that you have reached the best rate of climb speed before the final flap retraction.
Power On Stalls
The power on stalls duplicate, at a safe altitude, the accidental stalls that can be encountered during takeoff and climb out.
The power on stalls duplicate, at a safe altitude, the accidental stalls that can be encountered during takeoff and climb out. The stalls that simulate takeoff are entered in takeoff configuration at takeoff speed and power. Those that simulate the climb out are entered in climb configuration at climb airspeed and power. They are done straight ahead and in turns up to a maximum bank angle of 20 degrees. The pitch attitude for power on stalls has to be somewhat higher than for the power off stalls.
Also, the power on stalling speed will be slightly lower than the power off stalling speed. This is because the vertical component of thrust reduces the wing loading, and the propeller slipstream tends to maintain airflow over the center sections of the wings. To enter the power on stall, reduce power while maintaining altitude during the clearing turns. If simulating a maximum performance takeoff, the flaps should be extended if called for in the pilot’s operating handbook.
The airplane must be at the correct speed in the beginning in order to avoid an excessively high pitch attitude before the airplane stalls.
In the imminent takeoff stall, the speed is reduced to liftoff speed, and takeoff power is applied as the pitch attitude is raised to the normal climb attitude. The high power, low airspeed combination requires an increasing amount of right rudder pressure to keep the airplane in straight flight. Once the climb attitude is established, the nose is raised well above the climb attitude and held in that position until the first buffet or control effectiveness decay is felt.
At the first sign of a stall, recover by lowering the pitch attitude to slightly below level flight. Power is already at a maximum so the only available way to reduce angle of attack is with a reduction in pitch attitude. If flaps are extended, it will take a noticeably lower pitch attitude to recover from the stall. Retract the flaps if they are extended after reaching the best rate of climb speed and climb to the altitude specified by the examiner or instructor.
The full takeoff stall is identical to the imminent stall with the exception that the recovery is delayed until the airplane is fully stalled. The same entry procedure is used for the departure stalls with the exception that the airplane is in the climb configuration, at climb airspeed, and with climb power setting. As always when using a high-power setting at low airspeed, right rudder pressure is needed to keep the airplane straight.
The imminent stall recovery is made at the first sign of an impending stall, and the full stall recovery is started after the nose drops while holding full back elevator pressure, or an excessive sink rate or sudden loss of control effectiveness occurs.
Takeoff and departure stalls are also done in turns. After establishing the appropriate speed and configuration straight ahead, a shallow bank turn is started. The bank should not exceed 20 degrees and should remain constant as speed is reduced. Because of engine torque and “P” factor, turns to the left will tend to steepen, and banks to the right tend to decrease. However, during power on turning stalls to the right, you may find it necessary to use right rudder to overcome torque and “P” factor, and left aileron to prevent the bank from increasing.
The tendency in most airplanes is for the high wing to stall first, resulting in the airplane rolling toward the high wing. This is because, as the stall approaches, the airplane begins to mush and slip toward the low wing. This has the effect of blanking out the airflow over the raised wing, causing it to stall first, and the airplane will roll in that direction. If the turn is perfectly coordinated at the stall, the airplane should not experience any rolling moment, with the nose simply pitching away from the pilot.
Because of the loss of rudder effectiveness at low airspeed, it may not be possible to keep the ball centered in power-on stalls. If the ball is not centered, the airplane will roll away from the ball. If the ball is to the right, the airplane will roll to the left.
During the recovery, you should be prepared to use coordinated rudder and aileron pressure to stop the roll and level the wings. Remember, an airplane will always stall at the same angle of attack. The main factors which determine the angle of attack of a wing are, airspeed, weight, and load factor.
The indicated airspeed at which the airplane stalled is fairly consistent. The stalling speed in the turning stalls was slightly higher but the increase is so small that it is not readily noticeable. An increase in weight or an increase in load factor will cause the airplane to stall at a higher speed. Load factor is increased by steep turns, pull-ups, or any abrupt changes in the airplane’s attitude.
Accelerated Stalls
Stalls caused by an increased load factor are called accelerated maneuver stalls. As it’s used, the word accelerated does not mean speeded up, but that the stall has been caused by an increased load factor during a steep turn or an abrupt pitch change. Accelerated stalls should not be done with the flaps extended because of the risk of exceeding the maximum flaps extended speed in the stall recovery. Also, some airplanes have lower structural load limits with the flaps extended. To stay safely within the structural load limitations, they should be done at airspeeds at or below maneuvering speed and in most cases not more than 20 percent above the normal stall speed.
With power reduced, the airplane should be slowed to a speed one- and one-half times the normal stall speed in straight flight. When the proper airspeed is reached, a 45-degree banked turn is started with back elevator pressure used to maintain altitude. When the bank is established and the airspeed is 20 percent above the normal stall speed, back elevator pressure is briskly increased to bring about the stall.
At the stall, the rolling and pitching action is usually more sudden than you encounter in an unaccelerated stall. If the airplane starts to roll, power must be added and the back pressure released in order to recover before the wings can be leveled with coordinated aileron and rudder.
Practicing Stalls
Remember, stalls are practiced so that you can learn to recognize the approach of a stall and how to apply the correct actions to keep the stall from happening. Practicing flight at critically slow airspeeds, including stalls and slow flight, shouldn’t stop when you get your pilot certificate. Take a few minutes occasionally, to reacquaint yourself with the handling characteristics of the airplane at slow speeds. Experience the sight and sound cues of an impending stall, and how to prevent or recover from the stall. It’s a very small premium to pay for insurance you may never have to use.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/23201456/mastering-stalls.png10001250Eric Radtkehttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngEric Radtke2025-03-03 08:55:072025-02-23 20:16:00Mastering Stalls: How to Recognize, Prevent, and Recover Safely
Something as simple as a disabled aircraft could you force you to an alternate airport.
One of the most important skills pilots learn during flight training is sound decision making. Every flight, regardless of the complexity of the airplane or the distance of the trip, is comprised of a continuous series of decisions involving a host of variables that the pilot must make in order to safely get from point A to point B.
When flying a VFR cross-country, one of the early lessons is to always be evaluating alternate airports in case you’re not able to land at the intended destination. This is not only common sense, but it’s a legal requirement too:
Preflight Action (FAR 91.103) – Each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight, become familiar with all available information concerning that flight. For a flight under IFR or a flight not in the vicinity of an airport, weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available if the planned flight cannot be completed, and any known traffic delays of which the pilot in command has been advised by ATC.
Though it’s rare, your destination airport could become unusable due to a thunderstorm moving in, or a disabled airplane on the runway. To be clear, you are not required to declare an alternate airport in any official capacity flying VFR, but rather you should have a few airports in mind along the way and near your destination.
IFR Alternate Airport Planning
While every IFR flight requires you to file an IFR flight plan and receive an ATC clearance, not every flight is flown in IFR conditions.
Contingency planning is even more important for IFR pilots on cross-country flights where a cloud ceiling shift of 100’ or visibility change of a ½ mile can mean the difference between seeing the runway at the end of an instrument approach or having to go around and find another place to land.
While every IFR flight requires you to file an IFR flight plan and receive an ATC clearance, not every flight is flown in IFR conditions. After 3,000+ hours of flying on IFR flight plans, I’d say most of that time was actually spent in VFR conditions and with only a handful of the flights in any given year requiring an instrument approach to be flown at the destination.
Regardless of the weather, my preference is to always file an IFR flight plan on cross-country trips, primarily for the benefit of the ATC services provided along the way. The IFR flight plan form requires much of the same information as when flying VFR, except you have to treat the Alternate Airport field more seriously. FAR 91.169 describes two scenarios as it relates to IFR alternate airport requirements:
If the weather at the destination, for at least 1 hour before and 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, is forecast to have at least a 2,000 foot ceiling (above the airport elevation) and visibility of at least 3 statute miles, you are not required to list an alternate airport in the IFR flight plan.
If either the ceiling or visibility is forecast to be less than 2,000 feet or 3 statute miles during that arrival window, you are required to file an alternate. Also, the destination airport must have at least one instrument approach procedure or an alternate airport will always be required.
Many pilots refer to this as the 1-2-3 rule: Plus or minus 1 hour from arrival, ceilings at least 2,000 feet and visibility at least 3 statute miles.
The first scenario above only states that you don’t have to legally file an alternate on the IFR flight plan if the weather is forecast to be good at the destination, but as discussed earlier during the VFR flight scenario, FAR 91.103 still requires you to have an alternate in mind in the event that the runway at the destination airport becomes unusable for any other reason.
Now, let’s assume that the weather forecast at the destination is for low IFR conditions and an alternate airport is required. There are legal requirements that the filed alternate airport needs to meet, but similar to the weather briefing, start with a big-picture view of what’s causing the IFR conditions at the destination and a few practical aspects about potential alternate airports:
Is there a cold front moving through at the arrival time forecast to cause localized areas of low visibility? Look for a nearby airport to the east of the destination ahead of the front.
Is there widespread fog? You’ll need to search further away from the weather system over the destination and carry plenty of extra fuel.
Start with a big-picture view of what’s causing the IFR conditions at the destination.
Is there another cloud layer above the fog and no wind? The fog may not clear out as fast as forecast due to inadequate solar heating.
What time of day is the flight? Low visibility conditions tend to improve several hours after sunrise into late morning, but then deteriorate at night as temperatures cool.
Is there rising terrain nearby or large variations in airport elevations within 50 NM of the destination? A nearby airport at a lower altitude may provide additional clearance under a cloud layer (with the caveat that it could be prone to fog if near a body of water).
What services are available at the alternate airport? As we’ll discuss later in this article, the alternate airport needs to have reliable weather reporting, and you’ll likely need fuel and/or FBO services when you get there. Think about choosing a towered airport with an ATIS broadcast and a 24-hour FBO.
If you are planning with ForeFlight or Garmin Pilot, you’ll find some helpful alternate airport planning tools to help you decide. In ForeFlight, enter your basic flight plan information, and then tap the Alternate field. This will display a list of suggested alternate airports and key information: airport name, forecast weather for the arrival time, longest runway length and the time/fuel to divert there after executing a missed approach at the planned destination.
Legal requirements for selecting an alternate airport
After selecting the best option based on the criteria above, you’ll next need to verify that it meets the legal requirements to use the selected airport as an alternate. Once again, this is based on the weather reports or forecasts. The ability to include “reports and forecasts” in this decision is important. On a relatively short flight, reports may be more meaningful than a forecast. You can also determine trends by examining a series of reports versus relying solely on a forecast.
The same regulation that outlines whether or not an alternate is required, FAR 91.169, also specifies the weather conditions that a filed alternate airport must meet. These rules are designed to build some extra ceiling and visibility margins above the approach minimums to make it as much of a sure thing as possible if you actually have to divert. The weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate that, at the estimated time of arrival at the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility at that airport will be at or above the following weather minima:
A ceiling of at least 600 feet and a visibility of two statute miles if the airport has a precision approach (ILS Approach)
A ceiling of at least 800 feet and a visibility of two statute miles if the airport has a non-precision approach (RNAV/GPS or VOR)
The key point here is that those are the standard alternate minimums, but there are exceptions and many airports have nonstandard alternate minimums that may require a forecast of higher ceilings and/or higher visibility. To determine if an airport has nonstandard alternate minimums or another exception, reference the chart for the planned instrument approach and look for a black triangle with the letter A:
This symbol indicates that nonstandard alternate minimums apply and you need to refer to the IFR Alternate Airport Minimums reference. If you are using paper charts, these can be found in the front of the approach chart book. If you are a ForeFlight user, navigate to the Airports screen, select the Procedures tab, select Arrival and then Alternate Minimums.
The first thing you’ll notice is that the majority of the airports include the line “NA when local weather not available”, which simply means you can’t plan to fly that approach at the alternate airport if the AWOS or ASOS is out of service (or in very rare cases the ATIS).
Next, you’ll see instrument approaches with notes indicating that higher alternate minimums are needed if you are planning to fly that approach. For example, at Pellston, MI (PLN), if your only option is to fly the RNAV Rwy 5 approach based on strong winds out of the northeast, the forecast would need to be for 900 foot ceilings and 2 miles visibility for Category A and B speeds for you to be able to file PLN as a legal alternate airport.
The last thing to pay attention to is that just because one instrument approach has nonstandard alternate minimums listed, it doesn’t mean that it applies to all the approaches at the airport. Take a look at Jackon, MI (JXN), and you’ll see that the ILS Rwy 25 approach chart shows the black A symbol with the notes that you cannot plan to use Jackson as an alternate airport and fly the ILS when the local weather is not available and/or the tower is closed:
There are actually five instrument approaches at JXN and if the RNAV 32 looks like a viable option, you can use the standard alternate minimums (forecast of 800 foot ceilings and 2 SM visibility) since there is no black A symbol on the chart. This means you can legally file JXN as an alternate even if your planned arrival time is after hours when the control tower is closed.
Additional GPS Approach Considerations
There is one last legal consideration when planning for the alternate and it relates to the avionics in your panel. The first generation of IFR-approach GPS receivers were approved to fly LNAV-only approaches and require the pilot to verify receiver autonomous integrity monitory (RAIM) will be available during the approach (e.g. Bendix/King KLN94, the original Garmin 430/530/G1000).
If you are flying today with one of these systems, you can only plan to fly an RNAV approach based on LNAV minimums at either the destination OR alternate airport, but not at both. From a practical standpoint, this means that if your original destination only has RNAV approaches, your alternate airport must have an approved instrument approach procedure, other than GPS, that is anticipated to be operational and available at the estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is equipped to fly.
The current generation of GPS navigators which include WAAS capability (e.g. Garmin 430W/GTN650/G1000 NXi) provide additional flexibility when it comes to alternate planning with one exception. You can plan to fly RNAV approaches at both the destination and the alternate, but for flight planning purposes, you have to make the assumption that you will be flying to the LNAV minimums. The reasoning here is to build extra safety margins as the LNAV minima will be higher than LPV minimums and helps to provide additional assurance that you will be able to complete the approach when arriving at the alternate.
Keep in mind, this is just for planning purposes; if you actually divert to the planned alternate, the rules say it’s perfectly ok to still fly the LPV approach when you get there. And it is also perfectly fine to select a diversion airport other than what was filed if the circumstances warrant.
Which weather forecast should you use?
We just spent a lot of time reviewing alternate airport selection criteria that is 100% dependent on the weather reports and forecast for the time of arrival. If you’re flying to a larger airport that publishes a TAF, that forecast type is your main product for determining the ceiling height and visibility for your destination and alternate airport. Pay close attention to TEMPO or PROB30 periods that apply to your arrival time as you’ll need to use the ceiling or visibility listed here for legal planning, even if it’s just speculation on the part of the forecaster.
If your destination or alternate doesn’t offer a TAF, you’ll need to use the Graphical Forecast for Aviation resource, available here. This provides a model-based forecast for the entire U.S., showing expected cloud bases and tops 18 hours into the future. You can enter your flight plan at the top right of the map, select the Clouds overlay, and then Bases from the top left of the map. Drag the time slider to your planned arrival time and zoom in on your destination to see the forecast ceilings. You can check the forecast visibility the same way, by selecting the CIG/VIS layer. The resolution of the color-shading isn’t great, but it is helpful to locate areas where the visibility or ceiling is forecast to be better (or worse) than the location of your destination airport.
Flight Planning vs. Reality
Everything we’ve discussed so far relates to flight planning only and the process to choose an alternate airport for the IFR flight plan form. While it may seem arduous, it is designed to make you do your homework and ensure that is always a viable alternate airport available for every flight.
Keep an eye on the weather as you approach the destination, using both ADS-B datalink weather, and by tuning in the local ATIS/AWOS.
For a three hour cross-country flight, this is probably done at least an hour before takeoff, meaning at least four hours before you actually arrive at your destination. The reality is that the weather doesn’t know or care what was forecast in the TAF, and is often much different when established on the approach.
Keep an eye on the weather as you approach the destination, using both ADS-B datalink weather, and by tuning in the local ATIS/AWOS on the radio. If it looks like the weather will be near the minimums for the approach, it is time to start thinking about what the best alternate airport will be based on the current weather. If it still looks like the planned alternate is the best option, go for it. And remember that the 600-2 or 800-2 ceiling/visibility was just for planning; you’re just looking for the weather to be above the approach minimums for the airport at this point.
However, if the weather reports are showing that the planned alternate is no longer a viable option, it’s time to throw all that planning out the window and start looking for a new option. Again this is where flying with ADS-B datalink weather and an iPad is worth every penny as you can scan the visibility and ceiling reports on the map to help determine the best option.
Keep ATC informed of your plans too, even if you do decide it’s best to go to the filed alternate. They do not have access to all of the information you filed and cannot see the airport you listed as an alternate (and don’t care for that matter), so choose the best option based on all the information you have at that moment in time.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/21102011/choosing-the-best-IFR-alternate.png10001250Bret Koebbehttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngBret Koebbe2025-02-28 08:55:072025-02-21 10:20:53How to Choose the Best Alternate Airport for Your IFR Flight: A Pilot’s Guide
Most of the information filed in an IFR flight plan is based on weather forecasts that are released well before your wheels ever leave the ground. Here’s a look at what parts of the flight plan actually matter to ATC so that you know how to react if and when the weather conditions don’t match the forecast.
To take the next step, check out Sporty’s Instrument Rating Course, which includes 13 hours of in-flight HD cross-country and instrument approach video training and comprehensive written test preparation tools.
You can learn more about the course, as well as find a large collection of new articles, videos, quizzes and podcasts all geared towards IFR flying at Sportys.com/IFR.
https://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/27151249/IFR-flight-plans.jpg10001250Bret Koebbehttps://media.flighttrainingcentral.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/05155154/FTC-logo-horizontal-fianl.pngBret Koebbe2025-02-27 16:00:302025-02-27 15:18:59Filing an IFR Flight Plan? Here’s What Matters Most to ATC
Quiz: Airspace classifications and rules
/in Quiz/by Chris ClarkeYou’ll likely pass through several classes of airspace on every flight, whether it’s your first solo or a cross-country flight to the beach. Each class of airspace is depicted with unique markings on the sectional chart and different VFR weather minimums and equipment requirements. Take our latest quiz and test your knowledge of the U.S. airspace system.
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Want to brush up on your airspace knowledge? Check out Sporty’s 2025 Learn to Fly Course
Regional Airline Association Opens Application Window for 2025 Scholarship Program
/in News/by Flight Training Central StaffThe Regional Airline Association (RAA) is now accepting applications for its 2025 scholarship program.
The Regional Airline Association (RAA) is now accepting applications for its 2025 scholarship program, which offers financial support to students pursuing careers in aviation. The RAA Scholarship aims to help the next generation of aviation professionals achieve their educational and career goals while strengthening, expanding, and diversifying the aviation industry’s future workforce.
Each year, RAA awards scholarships to outstanding students enrolled in accredited aviation programs at colleges and universities across the United States to offset the financial burden of education costs. The scholarship is open to individuals pursuing careers as pilots, aircraft maintenance technicians, and other aviation-related professions vital to the regional airline industry.
Eligibility Requirements:
How to Apply:
Students can submit their applications online by April 30, 2025. The application includes a personal statement, resume, academic transcripts, and a letter of recommendation.
Recipients will be announced later in the year and will be recognized at the 2025 RAA Leaders Conference, where they can connect with industry leaders and professionals.
For more information on the RAA Scholarship, visit https://raa.org/raa-
Tailwheel Pilots’ Guide to Smooth Grass Landings
/in Video Tips/by Bret KoebbeThe rugged design of a tailwheel airplane and its extra prop clearance opens up the opportunity to land at a wide variety of off-airport locations with soft surfaces, like sand, gravel bars, grass and even mud. A modified soft-field approach and landing technique should be used when operating from these conditions, which allows the wheels to touchdown at the slowest possible airspeed with the wings supporting the weight of the airplane as long as possible.
This week’s tip explains how to land a tailwheel airplane on non-pavement surfaces using the soft field method. To learn more about how to fly tailwheel airplanes, check out Sporty’s Tailwheel Checkout Course with Patty Wagstaff.
Mastering Stalls: How to Recognize, Prevent, and Recover Safely
/in Tips and technique/by Eric RadtkeAerodynamic stalls are caused by an excessive angle of attack. And while technically they can occur at any attitude, power setting, or airspeed, as a practical matter, they are likely to occur when operating at the edges of the normal operating envelope and/or while making abrupt control inputs. While it’s extremely important to understand what conditions can lead to a stall, how to recognize an impending stall, and correct recovery techniques, it’s not something to fear during your everyday flying.
Depending on design, airfoils used in general aviation, stall at angles of attack between 16 to 18 degrees. A wing will always stall at the same angle of attack; however, weight, and bank angle, power setting and load factor may change the speed or the pitch attitude at which the airplane stalls.
Stalls are not taught to make you proficient in performing stalls but are done to make you aware of and avoid an impending stall, or, properly recover in case you inadvertently stall the airplane. Practicing stalls will also help you learn the low airspeed flight characteristics of the airplane, and how to control the airplane at low airspeeds which is what you will encounter while maneuvering in the traffic pattern and approaching to land.
The test standards divide stalls into power off and power on. The power on stall simulates the takeoff and departure situations, and the power off stalls the approach and landing conditions. Whenever you perform any stall, the airplane must be at an altitude which allows the stall and recovery to be made without descending below 1,500 feet above the surface. This is an absolute minimum and stalls should be practiced higher, if at all possible. Also, the weight in the airplane must be properly distributed and balanced. This is always true, but it is especially important when practicing stalls. If weight is loaded too far forward, the airplane will stall at a higher airspeed; and if loaded too far aft, stall recovery may be difficult.
Power Off Stalls
The imminent stall recovery is made when the airplane is on the verge of, but not completely, stalled.
To begin, reduce power to idle and maintain altitude in level flight to slow the airplane to normal approach speed. As the airspeed slows into the white arc, extend the wing flaps. At the normal approach speed, lower the nose to the approach pitch attitude.
When the airplane is stabilized in the approach attitude and speed, begin to smoothly and slowly bring the nose up to an attitude which will cause a stall. This attitude should not be more than the normal climb attitude. The idea is to reach the imminent stall without having the airplane in an abnormally high pitch attitude.
The imminent stall recovery is made when the airplane is on the verge of, but not completely, stalled. This is when the first decay of control effectiveness or buffeting occurs because of the disruption of normal air flow over the flight control surfaces.
Recovery is made by lowering the nose, simultaneously applying full power while maintaining directional control with coordinated use of aileron and rudder. Because the airplane is not fully stalled, the pitch attitude only needs to be lowered to the point where minimum controllable airspeed, and thus control effectiveness, is regained. A pitch attitude slightly below level flight is usually sufficient to recover from an imminent stall.
As speed increases, slowly retract the flaps and establish a normal climb to the altitude specified by the examiner or instructor.
Imminent power-off stalls during turns should be made at 20 degrees of bank, simulating the turn from base to final. The imminent stall should be accomplished in approximately 90 degrees of turn. After establishing approach speed and flap configuration, start a 20-degree bank turn. Then, slowly and smoothly bring the nose up to the attitude which will stall the airplane.
During all turning stalls there is a tendency for the bank to increase. If the bank increases, the loss of vertical lift component tends to lower the nose. During the stall entry, use control pressures as necessary to prevent the bank angle from changing, keep the ball in the center, and keep the nose from dropping. Then, at the first sign of a stall, lower the nose, apply power, and level the wings. Right rudder pressure will be needed to offset the effect of the increase in power.
As speed increases, slowly retract the flaps and establish a normal climb to the altitude specified by the examiner or instructor.
The entry procedure for doing full stalls straight ahead with power off is the same as for the imminent stalls. For turning full stalls power off, the bank should be 20 degrees.
Full stalls require that the airplane be forced deeper into the stall, but recovery should be prompt when any of the signs of a full stall is experienced. Compared to the power on full stall, the power off full stall will provide fewer cues in that the airplane will not shake and buffet as much as in the power on stalls. Usually, the best clue is when the elevator control is full back and the nose pitches down.
The recovery procedure is the same as for all stalls. Reduce the angle of attack, add full power, and maintain directional control using coordinated rudder and aileron pressures. As you might expect, recovery from the full stall will require a lower pitch attitude to avoid the secondary stall and the altitude loss will be greater. As speed increases, retract the flaps- be sure that you have reached the best rate of climb speed before the final flap retraction.
Power On Stalls
The power on stalls duplicate, at a safe altitude, the accidental stalls that can be encountered during takeoff and climb out.
The power on stalls duplicate, at a safe altitude, the accidental stalls that can be encountered during takeoff and climb out. The stalls that simulate takeoff are entered in takeoff configuration at takeoff speed and power. Those that simulate the climb out are entered in climb configuration at climb airspeed and power. They are done straight ahead and in turns up to a maximum bank angle of 20 degrees. The pitch attitude for power on stalls has to be somewhat higher than for the power off stalls.
Also, the power on stalling speed will be slightly lower than the power off stalling speed. This is because the vertical component of thrust reduces the wing loading, and the propeller slipstream tends to maintain airflow over the center sections of the wings. To enter the power on stall, reduce power while maintaining altitude during the clearing turns. If simulating a maximum performance takeoff, the flaps should be extended if called for in the pilot’s operating handbook.
The airplane must be at the correct speed in the beginning in order to avoid an excessively high pitch attitude before the airplane stalls.
In the imminent takeoff stall, the speed is reduced to liftoff speed, and takeoff power is applied as the pitch attitude is raised to the normal climb attitude. The high power, low airspeed combination requires an increasing amount of right rudder pressure to keep the airplane in straight flight. Once the climb attitude is established, the nose is raised well above the climb attitude and held in that position until the first buffet or control effectiveness decay is felt.
At the first sign of a stall, recover by lowering the pitch attitude to slightly below level flight. Power is already at a maximum so the only available way to reduce angle of attack is with a reduction in pitch attitude. If flaps are extended, it will take a noticeably lower pitch attitude to recover from the stall. Retract the flaps if they are extended after reaching the best rate of climb speed and climb to the altitude specified by the examiner or instructor.
The full takeoff stall is identical to the imminent stall with the exception that the recovery is delayed until the airplane is fully stalled. The same entry procedure is used for the departure stalls with the exception that the airplane is in the climb configuration, at climb airspeed, and with climb power setting. As always when using a high-power setting at low airspeed, right rudder pressure is needed to keep the airplane straight.
The imminent stall recovery is made at the first sign of an impending stall, and the full stall recovery is started after the nose drops while holding full back elevator pressure, or an excessive sink rate or sudden loss of control effectiveness occurs.
Takeoff and departure stalls are also done in turns. After establishing the appropriate speed and configuration straight ahead, a shallow bank turn is started. The bank should not exceed 20 degrees and should remain constant as speed is reduced. Because of engine torque and “P” factor, turns to the left will tend to steepen, and banks to the right tend to decrease. However, during power on turning stalls to the right, you may find it necessary to use right rudder to overcome torque and “P” factor, and left aileron to prevent the bank from increasing.
The tendency in most airplanes is for the high wing to stall first, resulting in the airplane rolling toward the high wing. This is because, as the stall approaches, the airplane begins to mush and slip toward the low wing. This has the effect of blanking out the airflow over the raised wing, causing it to stall first, and the airplane will roll in that direction. If the turn is perfectly coordinated at the stall, the airplane should not experience any rolling moment, with the nose simply pitching away from the pilot.
Because of the loss of rudder effectiveness at low airspeed, it may not be possible to keep the ball centered in power-on stalls. If the ball is not centered, the airplane will roll away from the ball. If the ball is to the right, the airplane will roll to the left.
During the recovery, you should be prepared to use coordinated rudder and aileron pressure to stop the roll and level the wings. Remember, an airplane will always stall at the same angle of attack. The main factors which determine the angle of attack of a wing are, airspeed, weight, and load factor.
The indicated airspeed at which the airplane stalled is fairly consistent. The stalling speed in the turning stalls was slightly higher but the increase is so small that it is not readily noticeable. An increase in weight or an increase in load factor will cause the airplane to stall at a higher speed. Load factor is increased by steep turns, pull-ups, or any abrupt changes in the airplane’s attitude.
Accelerated Stalls
Stalls caused by an increased load factor are called accelerated maneuver stalls. As it’s used, the word accelerated does not mean speeded up, but that the stall has been caused by an increased load factor during a steep turn or an abrupt pitch change. Accelerated stalls should not be done with the flaps extended because of the risk of exceeding the maximum flaps extended speed in the stall recovery. Also, some airplanes have lower structural load limits with the flaps extended. To stay safely within the structural load limitations, they should be done at airspeeds at or below maneuvering speed and in most cases not more than 20 percent above the normal stall speed.
With power reduced, the airplane should be slowed to a speed one- and one-half times the normal stall speed in straight flight. When the proper airspeed is reached, a 45-degree banked turn is started with back elevator pressure used to maintain altitude. When the bank is established and the airspeed is 20 percent above the normal stall speed, back elevator pressure is briskly increased to bring about the stall.
At the stall, the rolling and pitching action is usually more sudden than you encounter in an unaccelerated stall. If the airplane starts to roll, power must be added and the back pressure released in order to recover before the wings can be leveled with coordinated aileron and rudder.
Practicing Stalls
Remember, stalls are practiced so that you can learn to recognize the approach of a stall and how to apply the correct actions to keep the stall from happening. Practicing flight at critically slow airspeeds, including stalls and slow flight, shouldn’t stop when you get your pilot certificate. Take a few minutes occasionally, to reacquaint yourself with the handling characteristics of the airplane at slow speeds. Experience the sight and sound cues of an impending stall, and how to prevent or recover from the stall. It’s a very small premium to pay for insurance you may never have to use.
How to Choose the Best Alternate Airport for Your IFR Flight: A Pilot’s Guide
/in IFR flying/by Bret KoebbeSomething as simple as a disabled aircraft could you force you to an alternate airport.
One of the most important skills pilots learn during flight training is sound decision making. Every flight, regardless of the complexity of the airplane or the distance of the trip, is comprised of a continuous series of decisions involving a host of variables that the pilot must make in order to safely get from point A to point B.
When flying a VFR cross-country, one of the early lessons is to always be evaluating alternate airports in case you’re not able to land at the intended destination. This is not only common sense, but it’s a legal requirement too:
Though it’s rare, your destination airport could become unusable due to a thunderstorm moving in, or a disabled airplane on the runway. To be clear, you are not required to declare an alternate airport in any official capacity flying VFR, but rather you should have a few airports in mind along the way and near your destination.
IFR Alternate Airport Planning
While every IFR flight requires you to file an IFR flight plan and receive an ATC clearance, not every flight is flown in IFR conditions.
Contingency planning is even more important for IFR pilots on cross-country flights where a cloud ceiling shift of 100’ or visibility change of a ½ mile can mean the difference between seeing the runway at the end of an instrument approach or having to go around and find another place to land.
While every IFR flight requires you to file an IFR flight plan and receive an ATC clearance, not every flight is flown in IFR conditions. After 3,000+ hours of flying on IFR flight plans, I’d say most of that time was actually spent in VFR conditions and with only a handful of the flights in any given year requiring an instrument approach to be flown at the destination.
Regardless of the weather, my preference is to always file an IFR flight plan on cross-country trips, primarily for the benefit of the ATC services provided along the way. The IFR flight plan form requires much of the same information as when flying VFR, except you have to treat the Alternate Airport field more seriously. FAR 91.169 describes two scenarios as it relates to IFR alternate airport requirements:
Many pilots refer to this as the 1-2-3 rule: Plus or minus 1 hour from arrival, ceilings at least 2,000 feet and visibility at least 3 statute miles.
The first scenario above only states that you don’t have to legally file an alternate on the IFR flight plan if the weather is forecast to be good at the destination, but as discussed earlier during the VFR flight scenario, FAR 91.103 still requires you to have an alternate in mind in the event that the runway at the destination airport becomes unusable for any other reason.
Now, let’s assume that the weather forecast at the destination is for low IFR conditions and an alternate airport is required. There are legal requirements that the filed alternate airport needs to meet, but similar to the weather briefing, start with a big-picture view of what’s causing the IFR conditions at the destination and a few practical aspects about potential alternate airports:
Is there a cold front moving through at the arrival time forecast to cause localized areas of low visibility? Look for a nearby airport to the east of the destination ahead of the front.
Is there widespread fog? You’ll need to search further away from the weather system over the destination and carry plenty of extra fuel.
Start with a big-picture view of what’s causing the IFR conditions at the destination.
Is there another cloud layer above the fog and no wind? The fog may not clear out as fast as forecast due to inadequate solar heating.
What time of day is the flight? Low visibility conditions tend to improve several hours after sunrise into late morning, but then deteriorate at night as temperatures cool.
Is there rising terrain nearby or large variations in airport elevations within 50 NM of the destination? A nearby airport at a lower altitude may provide additional clearance under a cloud layer (with the caveat that it could be prone to fog if near a body of water).
What services are available at the alternate airport? As we’ll discuss later in this article, the alternate airport needs to have reliable weather reporting, and you’ll likely need fuel and/or FBO services when you get there. Think about choosing a towered airport with an ATIS broadcast and a 24-hour FBO.
If you are planning with ForeFlight or Garmin Pilot, you’ll find some helpful alternate airport planning tools to help you decide. In ForeFlight, enter your basic flight plan information, and then tap the Alternate field. This will display a list of suggested alternate airports and key information: airport name, forecast weather for the arrival time, longest runway length and the time/fuel to divert there after executing a missed approach at the planned destination.
Legal requirements for selecting an alternate airport
After selecting the best option based on the criteria above, you’ll next need to verify that it meets the legal requirements to use the selected airport as an alternate. Once again, this is based on the weather reports or forecasts. The ability to include “reports and forecasts” in this decision is important. On a relatively short flight, reports may be more meaningful than a forecast. You can also determine trends by examining a series of reports versus relying solely on a forecast.
The same regulation that outlines whether or not an alternate is required, FAR 91.169, also specifies the weather conditions that a filed alternate airport must meet. These rules are designed to build some extra ceiling and visibility margins above the approach minimums to make it as much of a sure thing as possible if you actually have to divert. The weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate that, at the estimated time of arrival at the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility at that airport will be at or above the following weather minima:
The key point here is that those are the standard alternate minimums, but there are exceptions and many airports have nonstandard alternate minimums that may require a forecast of higher ceilings and/or higher visibility. To determine if an airport has nonstandard alternate minimums or another exception, reference the chart for the planned instrument approach and look for a black triangle with the letter A:
This symbol indicates that nonstandard alternate minimums apply and you need to refer to the IFR Alternate Airport Minimums reference. If you are using paper charts, these can be found in the front of the approach chart book. If you are a ForeFlight user, navigate to the Airports screen, select the Procedures tab, select Arrival and then Alternate Minimums.
The first thing you’ll notice is that the majority of the airports include the line “NA when local weather not available”, which simply means you can’t plan to fly that approach at the alternate airport if the AWOS or ASOS is out of service (or in very rare cases the ATIS).
Next, you’ll see instrument approaches with notes indicating that higher alternate minimums are needed if you are planning to fly that approach. For example, at Pellston, MI (PLN), if your only option is to fly the RNAV Rwy 5 approach based on strong winds out of the northeast, the forecast would need to be for 900 foot ceilings and 2 miles visibility for Category A and B speeds for you to be able to file PLN as a legal alternate airport.
The last thing to pay attention to is that just because one instrument approach has nonstandard alternate minimums listed, it doesn’t mean that it applies to all the approaches at the airport. Take a look at Jackon, MI (JXN), and you’ll see that the ILS Rwy 25 approach chart shows the black A symbol with the notes that you cannot plan to use Jackson as an alternate airport and fly the ILS when the local weather is not available and/or the tower is closed:
There are actually five instrument approaches at JXN and if the RNAV 32 looks like a viable option, you can use the standard alternate minimums (forecast of 800 foot ceilings and 2 SM visibility) since there is no black A symbol on the chart. This means you can legally file JXN as an alternate even if your planned arrival time is after hours when the control tower is closed.
Additional GPS Approach Considerations
There is one last legal consideration when planning for the alternate and it relates to the avionics in your panel. The first generation of IFR-approach GPS receivers were approved to fly LNAV-only approaches and require the pilot to verify receiver autonomous integrity monitory (RAIM) will be available during the approach (e.g. Bendix/King KLN94, the original Garmin 430/530/G1000).
If you are flying today with one of these systems, you can only plan to fly an RNAV approach based on LNAV minimums at either the destination OR alternate airport, but not at both. From a practical standpoint, this means that if your original destination only has RNAV approaches, your alternate airport must have an approved instrument approach procedure, other than GPS, that is anticipated to be operational and available at the estimated time of arrival, and which the aircraft is equipped to fly.
The current generation of GPS navigators which include WAAS capability (e.g. Garmin 430W/GTN650/G1000 NXi) provide additional flexibility when it comes to alternate planning with one exception. You can plan to fly RNAV approaches at both the destination and the alternate, but for flight planning purposes, you have to make the assumption that you will be flying to the LNAV minimums. The reasoning here is to build extra safety margins as the LNAV minima will be higher than LPV minimums and helps to provide additional assurance that you will be able to complete the approach when arriving at the alternate.
Keep in mind, this is just for planning purposes; if you actually divert to the planned alternate, the rules say it’s perfectly ok to still fly the LPV approach when you get there. And it is also perfectly fine to select a diversion airport other than what was filed if the circumstances warrant.
Which weather forecast should you use?
We just spent a lot of time reviewing alternate airport selection criteria that is 100% dependent on the weather reports and forecast for the time of arrival. If you’re flying to a larger airport that publishes a TAF, that forecast type is your main product for determining the ceiling height and visibility for your destination and alternate airport. Pay close attention to TEMPO or PROB30 periods that apply to your arrival time as you’ll need to use the ceiling or visibility listed here for legal planning, even if it’s just speculation on the part of the forecaster.
If your destination or alternate doesn’t offer a TAF, you’ll need to use the Graphical Forecast for Aviation resource, available here. This provides a model-based forecast for the entire U.S., showing expected cloud bases and tops 18 hours into the future. You can enter your flight plan at the top right of the map, select the Clouds overlay, and then Bases from the top left of the map. Drag the time slider to your planned arrival time and zoom in on your destination to see the forecast ceilings. You can check the forecast visibility the same way, by selecting the CIG/VIS layer. The resolution of the color-shading isn’t great, but it is helpful to locate areas where the visibility or ceiling is forecast to be better (or worse) than the location of your destination airport.
Flight Planning vs. Reality
Everything we’ve discussed so far relates to flight planning only and the process to choose an alternate airport for the IFR flight plan form. While it may seem arduous, it is designed to make you do your homework and ensure that is always a viable alternate airport available for every flight.
Keep an eye on the weather as you approach the destination, using both ADS-B datalink weather, and by tuning in the local ATIS/AWOS.
For a three hour cross-country flight, this is probably done at least an hour before takeoff, meaning at least four hours before you actually arrive at your destination. The reality is that the weather doesn’t know or care what was forecast in the TAF, and is often much different when established on the approach.
Keep an eye on the weather as you approach the destination, using both ADS-B datalink weather, and by tuning in the local ATIS/AWOS on the radio. If it looks like the weather will be near the minimums for the approach, it is time to start thinking about what the best alternate airport will be based on the current weather. If it still looks like the planned alternate is the best option, go for it. And remember that the 600-2 or 800-2 ceiling/visibility was just for planning; you’re just looking for the weather to be above the approach minimums for the airport at this point.
However, if the weather reports are showing that the planned alternate is no longer a viable option, it’s time to throw all that planning out the window and start looking for a new option. Again this is where flying with ADS-B datalink weather and an iPad is worth every penny as you can scan the visibility and ceiling reports on the map to help determine the best option.
Keep ATC informed of your plans too, even if you do decide it’s best to go to the filed alternate. They do not have access to all of the information you filed and cannot see the airport you listed as an alternate (and don’t care for that matter), so choose the best option based on all the information you have at that moment in time.
Filing an IFR Flight Plan? Here’s What Matters Most to ATC
/in Video Tips/by Bret KoebbeMost of the information filed in an IFR flight plan is based on weather forecasts that are released well before your wheels ever leave the ground. Here’s a look at what parts of the flight plan actually matter to ATC so that you know how to react if and when the weather conditions don’t match the forecast.
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